Here is a brief summary of the most prevalent views on hell in contemporary Christianity, detailing the main advocates and the evolution of each perspective:
Annihilationism (Conditionalism)
Annihilationism asserts that the wicked will ultimately be destroyed or cease to exist rather than suffer eternally. Annihilationism believes that only the saved are granted immortality, while the unsaved face complete and final annihilation.
Some key proponents include early Christian theologian Arnobius (3rd century), as well as John Stott, Edward Fudge, and Clark Pinnock (20th century). Annihilationists argue that the wicked will be utterly destroyed after the final judgment, ensuring that they do not endure eternal, conscious torment. Instead, their punishment is seen as finite, culminating in extinction.
Development: This view gained traction in the modern era, particularly through Edward Fudge’s influential book, “The Fire That Consumes,” which argued biblically and theologically for annihilationism. John Stott’s endorsement also helped bring the perspective into mainstream evangelical discussions.
Today, Annihilationism is popular among Seventh-day Adventists and other evangelical groups seeking a “less abusive” alternative to the hellfire view.
Universal Reconciliation (Universalism)
Universal Reconciliation (aka Christian Ultimate Universalism) posits that Jesus’ blood covers the sins of all people; thereby, all souls will eventually be reconciled to God and attain salvation. Some Universalist perspectives suggest that salvation of all will occur instantly after death, whereas the majority view is that many will first undergo a purification process in a realm akin to purgatory or hell. Universal Reconciliation highlights Jesus’s ultimate victory over sin and death, emphasizing God’s love, grace, and mercy.
Key proponents include numerous Church Fathers such as Clement of Alexandria (2nd Century), Origen (2nd Century), and Gregory of Nyssa (c. 4th Century), and modern proponents like Hosea Ballou (18th Century), George MacDonald (19th century), Karl Barth (20th century), and David Bentley Hart (21st century).
These theologians contend that God’s love and justice will eventually result in the reconciliation of all souls, guaranteeing that no one is eternally barred from God’s presence. They believe that an individual’s faith and deeds influence their eternal rewards and roles rather than their salvation.
Development: Origen’s early concept of apokatastasis suggested eventual restoration for all souls. Later, other Church Fathers, such as Gregory of Nyssa, further defended Universalism. Although some of Origen’s views were later condemned, Universal Reconciliation persisted among many theologians and is gaining a new wave of proponents in modern times.
Today, Universal Reconciliation, better known as Universalism, has supporters in different denominations, mainly in the Orthodox Church and non-conservative Protestant denominations, emphasizing a more inclusive understanding of salvation.
Purgatorial View
This Roman Catholic doctrine holds that some people will have to go through an intermediate state in which their souls will undergo purification before entering heaven. This purification prepares souls to achieve the holiness necessary to enter God’s presence.
Some key proponents include Augustine of Hippo (5th century), Thomas Aquinas (13th century), Dante Alighieri (14th century, in literature), and the Catholic church. These theologians view Purgatory as a merciful opportunity for some elected souls to be purified from residual sin before enjoying the beatific vision of God in heaven.
Development: The concept developed in early Christianity and was formally articulated by Catholic theologians, like Thomas Aquinas’s “Summa Theologica,” which provided a systematic theological framework. Dante’s “Divine Comedy” popularized the imagery.
Today, Purgatory remains a distinctive doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church, also recognized to varying degrees by some Eastern Orthodox and Anglican traditions.
The Orthodox View (Mystery of Hell)
Eastern Orthodoxy views hell less as a place of ongoing torment punishment (“hellfire”) and more as a state of being separated from God’s love, with some nuances about potential eventual reconciliation.
Some key proponents include Isaac the Syrian (7th century), Gregory Palamas (14th century), and contemporary figures like Kallistos Ware (20th century). These theologians view hell as a consequence of rejecting God’s love, with the potential for eventual reconciliation for all souls.
Development: Orthodox theology has traditionally focused on the transformative and purifying aspects of divine judgment, often viewing hell as a metaphorical state rather than a literal place. The concept of “the River of Fire” by Saint Isaac the Syrian describes hell as an experience of God’s presence that is painful for those not in communion with Him. Today, this view is prevalent in Eastern Orthodox theology, emphasizing a more mystical and relational understanding of hell and judgment.
Eternal Conscious Torment (ECT) or Hellfire
This perspective maintains that hell is a realm of perpetual, conscious torment—physical, mental, and emotional—for the unbeliever (e.g., Calvinism, Evangelicalism, Catholicism) and for the believer who has forfeited their salvation (e.g., Arminianism, Pentecostalism, Baptist, Catholicism), nuanced depending on the denomination’s specific theology.
Some key proponents include Augustine of Hippo (5th century), Anselm of Canterbury (11th century), Thomas Aquinas (13th century), John Calvin (16th century), Jonathan Edwards (18th century), and, in modern times, figures such as John MacArthur, John Piper, R.C. Sproul, and Wayne Grudem (21st century).
Development: Augustine’s works, such as “The City of God,” helped solidify this view in Western Christianity. Thomas Aquinas reinforced it in “Summa Theologica,” and Jonathan Edwards’ fiery sermons during the Great Awakening embedded it in American Evangelicalism.
Today, the concept of Eternal Conscious Torment (Hellfire) is predominantly held by conservative and fundamentalist Protestant denominations, as well as by many Catholics, who see Hellfire as an inevitable result of divine justice. In their doctrine, they maintain that sin is an offense against God’s infinite dignity and thus merits perpetual and severe torturous punishment. They hold the belief that those who pass away in disbelief will experience everlasting separation from God and endure unending, conscious, physical, mental, and emotional torment in Hellfire as proper punishment for their earthly sins. Ironically, a particular theological view held by many conservative Protestants suggests that Catholics, despite accepting and believing in Jesus as the Messiah, will still be condemned to eternal damnation due to differing theological beliefs.
The ECT perspective is, to a large extent, consistent with the views of hell commonly held by Islam. The Sunni view of hell, especially, is almost identical to the Eternal Conscious Torment (Hellfire) view in Christianity. Sunni theology also underscores hell as a realm of perpetual firey punishment for the condemned, employing the same depictions found in ECT.
Nuanced Views
- Metaphorical Fire
While some Christians (mainly fundamental and conservative Protestants) believe in literal flames in hell, others interpret the fire metaphorically, representing spiritual suffering and separation from God.
Metaphorical Fire Proponents: C.S. Lewis (20th century) and modern theologians across denominations.
These theologians suggest fire should be understood as a metaphor, representing the profound anguish of being separated from God. The metaphorical view has gained acceptance in modern theological discussions, emphasizing the symbolic nature of biblical texts and descriptions.
- Emergent Views
Emerging Christian movements and some contemporary theologians question traditional doctrines of hell, especially Eternal Conscious Torment, advocating instead for different, more nuanced, or symbolic interpretations of hell.
Some key proponents include Peter Enns, Andy Stanley, Brian Zahnd, William Paul Young, Brian McLaren, and Rob Bell.
These figures argue for a reinterpretation of the concept of hell that aligns more closely with both contemporary theology and biblical values of justice, compassion, forgiveness, and inclusivity.
- Mortalism (Soul Sleep)
Mortalism, also known as Soul Sleep, holds that the soul becomes unconscious at death and remains so until the resurrection and final judgment. Thus, as of today, most or all souls are not yet in either heaven or hell. This view suggests an intermediate state as a period of unconsciousness awaiting the final resurrection and judgment.
Conclusion
These and other less-known views reflect the diversity of thought within Christianity regarding the afterlife and the fate of the wicked, showcasing a range of interpretations from strict, eternal punishment to ultimate reconciliation with God. The development of these doctrines has been influenced by key theologians and historical contexts, shaping the varied landscape of Christian eschatology today. When compared, the concept of hell in Judaism can be best understood as a nuanced position, somewhat akin to the Universalist and Purgatorial perspectives within Christianity.
This article was a copy-paste from my new book on hell: HELL: A Jewish Perspective on a Christian Doctrine
