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The Doctrine of ‘Hell’ in Early Christianity

by Dr. Eitan Bar
18 minutes read

The understanding of hell has varied significantly throughout Christian history, reflecting differing theological frameworks across the early church. While views on the afterlife, especially hell, appear to have been underdeveloped during the early days of the church, below are some noteworthy statements from key figures in early Christianity that merit consideration. But first, it is essential to recognize that different modern schools of thought often dispute which Church Father held to what specific view. These debates reflect the challenges of translating and interpreting ancient texts and the diversity and complexity within early Christian theology regarding the nature of hell.

1. Church Fathers

Naturally, the authenticity of certain ancient quotes is often contested, so it’s wise to approach them with a healthy dose of skepticism.

Clement of Rome (35-99 AD)

Also known as Pope Clement I, was a bishop of Rome in the first century. He is regarded as the foremost among the Apostolic Fathers of the Church. He authored a Greek letter to the Corinthians, which, having been lost for centuries and only known in fragments through quotations by later authors, was eventually discovered in its entirety and attached to the Alexandrian codex. His letter was known to be recited in churches along with the writings of the New Testament. In it, Clement of Rome wrote:

Let us reflect how free from wrath he is towards all his creatures. God does good to all, but most abundantly to us who have fled for refuge to his compassions. God is the all-merciful and beneficent Father.

Clement of Rome

Hosea Ballou, an American theologian from the 18th century, commented, “He [Clement of Rome] probably believed in the salvation of all mankind.” Likewise, Thomas Allin, an Anglo-Irish priest and theologian from the 19th century, commented, “From which we may, I think, infer that Clement, with other fathers, was a believer in the larger hope.”

However, there is the issue of 2 Clement 6:7, in which he allegedly wrote the contrary.

2 Clement was once believed to have been written (to the Corinthians) by Clement of Rome sometime in the late 1st century. However, 4th-century bishop Eusebius, in his historical work, says there was only one recognized epistle of Clement (namely the so-called First Epistle of Clement), challenging the authenticity of a second epistle. Similar doubts were also expressed by Jerome in the 5th century. Today, modern scholars believe that Second Clement is actually a sermon written much later, long after Clement of Rome died, by an anonymous preacher, one who was not Clement of Rome.

Nonetheless, historians refer to the work by its known name, “Second Clement.” Still, in it, the anonymous author used the word αἰωνίου (aionios) to describe his beliefs regarding hell. First, it is important to note that much like the New Testament, many of the writings of the Church Fathers were composed in Koine Greek and are often misunderstood or mistranslated. For instance, the Greek word αἰωνίου (aionios) found in 2 Clement 6:7 is translated by some as “eternal” and “everlasting,” whereas a more accurate translation would be “age-long,” “for an age,” or “pertaining to an age.” The term “ἀΐδιος” (aïdios), on the other hand, which more definitively means “eternal,” is used in the New Testament to describe God’s power (Romans 1:20) but is not applied to hell or punishment. This distinction is crucial for understanding the New Testament writings and early Christian eschatology and theology. Further exploration of this topic will be detailed in subsequent sections of the book.

Ignatius of Antioch (Died 108 AD)

Also known as Ignatius Theophorus, was an early Christian theologian and Patriarch of Antioch. While en route to Rome, where he met his martyrdom, Ignatius, who some believe was a disciple of the Apostle John and/or Simon Peter, wrote a series of letters. This correspondence forms a central part of a later collection of works by the Apostolic Fathers. He is considered one of the three most important of these, together with Clement of Rome and Polycarp. Different camps often quote Ignatius. Interestingly, in his letter to the Magnesians, Ignatius wrote:

For as one who has been thought worthy of a divine and desirable name, in those bonds which I bear about, I commend the Churches, in which I pray for a union both of the flesh and spirit of Jesus Christ, who is the Saviour of all men, but specially of them that believe; by whose blood ye were redeemed; by whom ye have known God, or rather have been known by Him.

Ignatius of Antioch

Polycarp of Smyrna (c. 69-155 AD)

Polycarp, a prominent early Christian bishop and martyr, is often cited in discussions on early Christian beliefs about the afterlife. However, there is no clear evidence from his own writings that he explicitly believed in a temporary hell, eternal hell, annihilation, or something else altogether. The famous quote attributed to him about the afterlife comes from the Martyrdom of Polycarp, a letter written to the church at Smyrna around 150 AD. In Chapter 11 of this letter, Polycarp reportedly says to his torturers:

You threaten me with the fire which burns for an hour and after a little is extinguished, but you are ignorant of the fire of the coming judgment and of aiónios [age-long] fire.

Polycarp of Smyrna

While this account clearly suggests a belief in some form of judgment, the Greek term used here (and in other early Christian texts), “aiónios,” more accurately translates to “age-long” rather than implying undefined long duration (aïdios), suggesting that their judgment will be much more severe, but not necessarily eternal.

Justin Martyr (c. 100-165 AD)

Justin was an early apologist and philosopher known for his robust defense of Christianity. Though many of his works are lost, two apologies and a dialogue have survived. His most well-known text, the “First Apology,” passionately defends the morality of the Christian life and provides various ethical, moral, and philosophical arguments to convince the Roman emperor, Antoninus Pius, to abandon the persecution of Christians. In it, Justin wrote:

Then shall they be punished with aiōnian [age-long] punishment and not, as Plato says, for a period only of a thousand years.

Justin Martyr

Justin Martyr rejected Plato’s idea of a thousand years’ punishment for all unrighteous regardless of the severity of their sins, advocating instead for the notion of a time he describes as “αἰωνίαν” (aiónios), which has no predefined time. It remains ambiguous whether Justin’s opposition to Plato’s doctrine of hell was general or specifically targeted at the concept of 1000 years, given that Plato was a Greek philosopher and not a Christian. Nonetheless, by contesting the fixed period of 1000 years and proposing an indefinite duration, Justin appears to emphasize the gravity of divine justice, suggesting variable, undefined periods of time proportionate to the gravity of the sin committed, as inferred from the context of their debate on morality and ethics.

Theophilus of Antioch (c. 120-183 AD)

Theophilus of Antioch was an early Christian apologist and Patriarch of Antioch. He is best known for his work “To Autolycus,” a defense of Christianity addressed to a pagan friend. Theophilus contributed significantly to the development of Christian thought in the second century:

And God showed great kindness to man, in this, that He did not suffer him to continue being in sin forever; but as it were, by a kind of banishment, cast him out of paradise in order that, having punishment expiated within an appointed time, and having been disciplined, he should afterwards be recalled… just as a vessel, when one being fashioned it has some flaw, is remoulded or remade that it may become new and entire; so also it happens to man by death. For he is broken up by force, that in the resurrection he may be found whole; I mean spotless, righteous and immortal.

Theophilus of Antioch

Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130-202 AD)

Irenaeus, a Greek bishop, was a pivotal early Christian theologian. His influential work, “Against Heresies,” targeted Gnosticism and played a crucial role in shaping orthodoxy for the early church. The exact stance Irenaeus held regarding hell remains a topic of debate as more than one camp claims Irenaeus represents their view. In his writings, he stated the following:

The judge…will send into αἰώνιος fire those who alter the truth, and despise his Father and his coming.

Irenaeus of Lyons

The main argument concerns Irenaeus’ use of the words “αἰώνιος” (an age vs. eternity) and “fire” (literally vs. metaphorically), which is challenging to determine due to the various uses of these words in different contexts and Irenaeus’ use of these words elsewhere.

Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-215 AD)

Clement of Alexandria was an early Christian theologian and philosopher. He founded the Catechetical School of Alexandria and was instrumental in the development of Christian education and apologetics. He wrote:

We can set no limits to the agency of the Redeemer to redeem, to rescue, to discipline in his work, and so will he continue to operate after this life.

…All men are Christ’s, some by knowing Him, the rest not yet. He is the Savior not of some and the rest not. For how is He savior and Lord, if not the Savior and Lord of all?

Clement of Alexandria

Origen of Alexandria (c. 185-254 AD)

Origen was the most important biblical scholar of the early Greek church and one of the most influential early theologians. He founded a school in Caesarea and is known for his extensive writings, including the “Hexapla” and “On First Principles,” which laid the groundwork for much of Christian theology and biblical exegesis. Origen proposed the concept of apokatastasis (the restoration of all creation to a condition of perfection), suggesting that all souls, including the devil and his demons, would ultimately be reconciled with God. Origen believed that God’s love and mercy would lead to the restoration of all creation. This Jewish-resembling view reflected the early Christian inclination towards universal reconciliation. Origen’s belief was that the fires of hell served a corrective, purifying purpose rather than being a place of eternal punishment:

There is a resurrection of the dead, and there is punishment, but not everlasting. For when the body is punished the soul is gradually purified, and so is restored to its ancient rank. For all wicked men, and for daemons, too, shall be restored to their former rank.

So then, when the end has been restored to the beginning, and the termination of things compared with their commencement, that condition of things will be re-established in which rational nature was placed, when it had no need to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; so that when all feeling of wickedness has been removed, and the individual has been purified and cleansed, He who alone is the one good God becomes to him ‘all,’ and that not in the case of a few individuals, or of a considerable number, but He Himself is ‘all in all.’ And when death shall no longer anywhere exist, nor the sting of death, nor any evil at all, then verily God will be ‘all in all.’

Origen of Alexandria

Arnobius of Sicca (c. 255-330 AD)

Also known as Arnobius the Elder, was an early Christian apologist of Berber origin during the reign of Diocletian. While some argue that hints of annihilationism are found in the writings of Ignatius of Antioch, Justin Martyr, and Irenaeus, it is the teachings of Arnobius that are most often interpreted as the first to defend annihilationism explicitly:

For they are cast in, and being annihilated, pass away vainly in everlasting destruction. For theirs is an intermediate state, as has been learned from Christ’s teaching; and they are such that they may on the one hand perish if they have not known God, and on the other be delivered from death if they have given heed to His threats and proffered favours. And to make manifest what is unknown, this is man’s real death, this which leaves nothing behind. For that which is seen by the eyes is only a separation of soul from body, not the last end— annihilation.

Arnobius of Sicca

Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260-340 AD)

Also known as Eusebius Pamphili, was a historian, exegete, and Christian polemicist. He became the Bishop of Caesarea Maritima about 314 AD. He was a scholar of the Biblical canon and is regarded as an extremely learned Christian of his time:

The Son “breaking in pieces” His enemies is for the sake of remolding them, as a potter his own work; as Jeremiah 18:6 says: i.e., to restore them once again to their former state.”

Eusebius of Caesarea

Hilary of Poitiers (c. 310–367 AD)

Hilary of Poitiers was a significant early Christian bishop and theologian known for his staunch defense of the doctrine of the Trinity against Arianism. He is often referred to as the “Athanasius of the West” and as the first theologian of the Trinity. Hilary believed “that Christ assumes all humanity physically into his body at the incarnation.” In other words, Hilary’s understanding of salvation was that Christ’s atonement was universal in scope:

Christ has become the body of the whole of humanity, that, through the body that he was kind enough to assume, the whole of humanity might be hidden in him.

Hilary of Poitiers

Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 296-373 AD)

Athanasius was a significant theologian, Church Father, and the twentieth bishop of Alexandria. His defense of Trinitarianism against Arianism and his works, including “On the Incarnation,” has made him a pivotal figure in the development of Christian orthodoxy. He wrote:

While the devil thought to kill One [Christ], he is deprived of all those cast out of hades, and he [the devil], sitting by the gates, sees all fettered beings led forth by the courage of the Savior.

… Flesh was taken up by the Logos to liberate all humans and resurrect all of them from the dead and ransom all of them from sin.

Athanasius of Alexandria

St. Basil the Great (c. 330-379 AD)

Also known as Basil of Caesarea, was the Bishop of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia, Asia Minor. Basil was an early Church Father who defended the orthodox faith against the Arian heresy. As bishop of Caesarea, he wrote several works on monasticism, theology, and canon law. He was declared a saint soon after his death. Basil wrote of the common belief regarding afterlife punishment:

The mass of men [Christians] say there is to be an end to punishment and to those who are punished.

St. Basil the Great

St. Macrina the Younger (c. 327-379 AD)

Also known as St. Macrina the Blessed, the sister of St. Basil the Great and St. Gregory of Nyssa, was a prominent early Christian nun and theologian. Her teachings and piety greatly influenced her brothers and the development of early monasticism in the Eastern Church. Macrina wrote:

The Word seems to me to lay down the doctrine of the perfect obliteration of wickedness, for if God shall be in all things that are, obviously wickedness shall not be in them. For it is necessary that at some time evil should be removed utterly and entirely from the realm of being.

St. Macrina the Younger

Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390 AD)

Also known as Gregory the Theologian, was a 4th-century Archbishop of Constantinople and one of the Cappadocian Fathers. He wrote:

These, if they will, may go Christ’s way, but if not let them go their way. In another place perhaps they shall be baptized with fire, that last baptism, which is not only painful, but enduring also; which eats up, as if it were hay, all defiled matter, and consumes all vanity and vice.

Gregory of Nazianzus

Diodore of Tarsus (c. 320-394 AD)

Diodore of Tarsus was a prominent early Christian bishop and theologian known for his exegetical works and his influence on the Antiochene school of theology. His teachings emphasized a literal and historical interpretation of the Bible, and he was a mentor to notable figures like John Chrysostom and Theodore of Mopsuestia. Diodore wrote:

For the wicked there are punishments, not perpetual, however, lest the immortality prepared for them should be a disadvantage, but they are to be purified for a brief period according to the amount of malice in their works. They shall therefore suffer punishment for a short space, but immortal blessedness having no end awaits them…the penalties to be inflicted for their many and grave sins are very far surpassed by the magnitude of the mercy to be showed to them.

Diodore of Tarsus

Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335-395 AD)

Also known as Gregory Nyssen, revered as one of the Cappadocian Fathers, was the Bishop of Nyssa in Cappadocia. He contributed significantly to the doctrine of the Trinity and the Nicene Creed. He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Oriental Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, and Lutheranism. Gregory posited that God’s love would eventually compel all creation to return to Him. Gregory’s vision of hell was not one of eternal damnation but of a forging process through which souls are purified and ultimately restored to a right relationship with God:

For it is evident that God will in truth be ‘in all’ when there shall be no evil in existence, when every created being is at harmony with itself, and every tongue shall confess that Jesus Christ is Lord; when every creature shall have been made one body. Now the body of Christ, as I have often said, is the whole of humanity.

Gregory of Nyssa

Ambrose of Milan (340-397 AD)

Ambrose was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He played a significant role in the conversion of St. Augustine and was known for his theological writings and hymns. Ambrose wrote:

Our Savior has appointed two kinds of resurrection in the Apocalypse. “Blessed is he that hath part in the first resurrection,” for such come to grace without the judgment. As for those who do not come to the first, but are reserved unto the second resurrection, these shall be disciplined until their appointed times, between the first and the second resurrection.

Ambrose of Milan

Didymus the Blind (313-398 AD)

Didymus the Blind was a prominent theologian and head of the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Despite losing his eyesight, he contributed significantly to Christian theology and was highly respected for his deep understanding of Scripture. Didymus wrote:

Mankind, being reclaimed from their sins, are to be subjected to Christ in the fullness of the dispensation instituted for the salvation of all.

Didymus the Blind

St. Chrysostom (c. 347-407 AD)

John Chrysostom, known for his eloquent preaching and public speaking, was an early Church Father who served as Archbishop of Constantinople. His sermons, theological treatises, and letters have had a lasting impact on Christian liturgy and theology. John Chrysostom described Hell as a place of “various kinds of torments and torrents of punishment.” On the other hand, he also concluded that…

While the devil imagined that he got a hold of Christ, he really lost all of those he was keeping.

St. Chrysostom

St. Jerome (347-420 AD)

St. Jerome was a Christian priest, confessor, theologian, and historian. He is best known for his translation of the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate) and his commentaries on the Gospels. Jerome’s scholarly work laid the foundations for much of the Western Church’s biblical interpretation:

In the end and consummation of the Universe all are to be restored into their original harmonious state, and we all shall be made one body and be united once more into a perfect man and the prayer of our Savior shall be fulfilled that all may be one.

St. Jerome

Theodore of Mopsuestia (350-428 AD)

Theodore of Mopsuestia was a theologian and bishop known for his exegetical works and his influence on the Antiochene school of thought. He emphasized the historical and literal interpretation of Scripture and significantly impacted the development of Nestorianism.

The wicked who have committed evil the whole period of their lives shall be punished till they learn that, by continuing in sin, they only continue in misery. And when, by this means, they shall have been brought to fear God, and to regard Him with good will, they shall obtain the enjoyment of His grace.

Theodore of Mopsuestia

Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD)

Augustine of Hippo was a pivotal figure in Western Christian theology and philosophy and a controversial figure to date. His seminal works, “Confessions” and “City of God,” have profoundly influenced Western Christian thought. Augustine originated the doctrines of Original Sin, Total Depravity, Total Inability, and Predestination, which were crucial to medieval and Reformation theology, highly influencing Calvin and Luther’s Reformation in the Catholic church. Augustine was among the first to challenge various doctrines of the Church Fathers, particularly their views on hell, advocating for the concept of “endless torment in hell.” Despite being a prominent proponent of this perspective, he recognized it as a minority opinion:

There are very many in our day, who though not denying the Holy Scriptures, do not believe in endless torments.

Augustine of Hippo

The doctrine of eternal conscious torment (ECT), as popularized by Augustine, presented hell as a place of unending physical suffering and torture. His view was and is often criticized for portraying God as a narcissistic, sadistic psychopath who derives pleasure from perpetual pain, a concept that conflicts with the scriptural portrayal of a loving and merciful deity. The idea of eternal torture with no possibility of redemption appears to many as more sadistic than just, suggesting a God who delights in suffering for its own sake. Despite this, Augustine’s perspectives, who lived far away from most of the Church Fathers, gained significant influence within the Western Church (Roman Catholic and Protestant), where his teachings became the prevailing doctrine across many contemporary conservative Protestant denominations today.

Peter Chrysologus (c. 380-450 AD)

Peter Chrysologus, known as the “Golden-Worded,” was a bishop of Ravenna. He is recognized for his concise and impactful homilies, which addressed various theological and moral topics, earning him the title of Doctor of the Church. He wrote…

That in the world to come, those who have done evil all their life long, will be made worthy of the sweetness of the Divine bounty. For never would Christ have said, “You will never get out until you have paid the last penny” unless it were possible for us to get cleansed when we paid the debt.

Peter Chrysologus

Theodoret the Blessed (387-458 AD)

Also known as Theodoret of Cyrus, was a prominent theologian and bishop of Cyrrhus in Syria. He was a prolific writer and a key figure in the theological debates of his time, particularly those concerning Christology. His works contributed to the development of Christian doctrine in the Eastern Church:

In the present life God is in all, for His nature is without limits, but he is not all in all. But in the coming life, when mortality is at an end and immortality granted, and sin has no longer any place, God will be all in all. For the Lord, who loves man, punishes medicinally, that He may check the course of impiety.

Theodoret the Blessed

Olympiodorus (495-550 AD)

Olympiodorus was a Christian philosopher and commentator known for his works on Neoplatonism and his efforts to reconcile Christian theology with classical philosophy. His writings contributed to the intellectual tradition of the early Byzantine Church. Olympiodorus wrote:

Do not suppose that the soul is punished for endless eons (apeirou aionas) in Tartarus. Very properly, the soul is not punished to gratify the revenge of the divinity, but for the sake of healing. But we say that the soul is punished for an aionion period (aionios) calling its life and its allotted period of punishment, its aeon.

Olympiodorus

In summary, aside from Augustine of Hippo, the majority of the Church Fathers held the belief in a temporary judgment in the afterlife, as opposed to an eternal one, a concept likely first advocated by Augustine of Hippo.

2. Hell in Early Christian Schools

In the first few centuries of the church, six catechetical schools taught theology, and their teachings on hell varied widely. These schools—much like modern seminaries—were the primary centers of Christian education and theological development during their time.

  1. Antioch: The School of Antioch was known for its emphasis on the literal and historical interpretation of Scripture. This school taught that hell was a temporary state designed to purify and ultimately restore all souls to God. This approach emphasized God’s ultimate plan for the reconciliation and salvation of all creation.
  2. Alexandria: The Catechetical School of Alexandria was one of the most influential theological centers in early Christianity. It was known for its allegorical interpretation of Scripture and philosophical approach to theology. Alexandria’s teachings proposed that hell served as a corrective and purifying phase, ultimately leading all souls to salvation through God’s love and mercy.
  3. Cesarea: The theological school in Caesarea, influenced by Origen and other prominent theologians, also believed and taught that God’s judgment was not endless but rather a process through which souls would be purified and eventually restored to their original, sinless state.
  4. Eastern Syria: The Eastern Syrian school, part of the broader Syriac Christian tradition, taught that divine punishment was temporary and aimed at bringing about repentance and healing, emphasizing the compassionate nature of God.
  5. Asia Minor (Turkey): The theological school in Asia Minor took a different approach, teaching annihilationism. This view held that the wicked would ultimately be eliminated—cease to exist—rather than being subjected to eternal torment.
  6. Hippo: The school in Hippo, named after Augustine of Hippo, was located in North Western Africa and was the only one that taught eternal conscious torment. This school viewed afterlife punishment as “hellfire”—a place of never-ending torturous punishment and suffering for the unrepentant. It emphasized the severity of sin and the absolute nature of divine wrath and judgment.

The majority of these schools, including the most esteemed centers of Alexandria and Antioch, taught complete and total reconciliation. They viewed eschatological punishments as corrective, temporary, and remedial, aimed at the restoration of the sinner. Their understanding of hell reflect a more hopeful and compassionate view of God’s justice and mercy, likened to that of the Jews, contrasting sharply with the later, more punitive doctrines of eternal conscious torment of hellfire.


This article was a copy-paste from my new book on hell: HELL: A Jewish Perspective on a Christian Doctrine




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Dr. Eitan Bar
Author, Theologian, Activist